All About of Ongole

The Ongole breed, like other breeds of cattle in India, takes its name from the geographical area in which it is produced. It is also called the Nellore breed for the reason that formerly Ongole Taluk, a division of a district, was included in the Nellore district, but now it is included in the Guntur district. The area is part of the Andhra Pradesh in India.

This breed is included among the gray-white cattle of the north, having white or gray color, stumpy horns and a long coffin-shaped skull. It has a great similarity with the Gaolao breed of Madhya Predesh and also has a resemblance to the Bhagnari type of cattle in the north of India. This similarity is not surprising in view of the fact that these breeds lie along the path taken by the Rig Vedic Aryans in their march from the north to the south of India.

It is claimed that the finest specimens of the breed are found in the area between the Gundalakama and Alluru rivers in the Ongole and Kandukur taluks, and also in the villages of Karumanchi, Nidamanur, Pondur, Jayavaram, Tungtoor and Karvadi and along the banks of River Musi. They are also famous from the taluks of Vinukonda and Narasraopet.

Characteristics
The Ongoles are large-sized animals with loosely knit frames, large dewlaps which are fleshy and hang in folds extending to the navel flap, and slightly pendulous sheaths. They have long bodies and short necks; limbs are long and muscular. The forehead is broad between the eyes and slightly prominent. Eyes are elliptical in shape with black eyelashes and a ring of black skin about 1/4 to 1/2 inch wide around the eyes. Ears are moderately long, measuring on an average for 9 to 12 inches, and slightly drooping. Horns are short and stumpy, growing outwards and backwards, thick at the base and firm without cracks. In some animals the horns are loose; this is probably due to the horn core not growing well.

The hump in the males is well-developed and erect and filled up on both sides and not concave. The skin is of medium thickness, mellow and elastic and often shows black mottled markings. The popular color is white. The male has dark gray markings on the head, neck and hump and sometimes black points on the knees and on the pasterns of both the fore and hind legs. A red or red and white animal of typical conformation is occasionally seen. They have a white switch of the tail, white eyelashes, a flesh colored muzzle, light colored hooves, dark gray marking on the hindquarters and dark mottle appearance on the body.

Ongole cattle are efficiently used in their native home for both work and milk production. They are usually docile and the bulls are very powerful, suitable for heavy plowing or car work but are not considered to be suitable for fast work or trotting purposes. The cows are fair milkers.

All animals currently used for food and agriculture and the result of Domestication from wild progenitor species like their wild relatives. These Domestic species are continuously evolving albeit at an accelerated rate due to human activity. In general the history of cattle followed the history of man, where even either primitive or modern. Man has migrated he has tended to bring with him his own breeds of cattle. During vedic period many of the useful animals have been brought under service of man, particularly Milk became useful since Rigvedic period. The selected those animals species that are having vigor, inborn nearness, social ability and docility.

The evolutionary process has been accelerated in the domestic species particularly cattle, as a consequence of 10,000 years of selection by human, during this period with in the species genetic variation which is essential for the survival of all species, has been partially redistributed in the formation of the large number of unique cattle breeds now exists.

These breeds have adopted too many environments as the breeds spread and have been used to produce different types and combinations. A major group of mammals to be domesticated after caprinae were the large ruminants (Bovinae), which included the humped (Bos indicus) and hump less (Bos Taurus) cattle, yak, mithun, banteng and buffalo. This range of species in the family Bovinae make a very large number of important contributions to food and agriculture, providing just under 30% world meat and 87% world milk. This Bovinae provided the planet with a means of digesting via fermentation. Same types of zebu animals are present from the time of Indus Valley civilization dating back to 3000 BC Indian subcontinent is a treasure house of Bos-Indicus Cattle.

Farmers in the breed tract has selected and preserved each successive variation, with the distinct intention of improving and altering a breed, in accordance with a preconceived idea, and by thus adding up variations, often so slight as to be imperceptible to the uneducated. He has effected wonderful changes and improvements in the direction he desired as we see here under in Ongole Breed from 1880. There is a tendency in the breed to grow leggy with sparse light carriage, but their form, temper and endurance earned nearness to the breeders. Effect of heat loads on Ongole cattle

Radiation:
Solar radiation received from sun is through solar terrestrial. The amount of radiation emitted for a particular location depends on global positioning, latitude, and longitude. Infrared radiation is intense in tropics, having sterilizing effect, stimulates tissues, increases metabolic processes. Non-pigmented skin has a definite hazard. 85% of solar radiated heat is sent back to the environment by the Ongole animal through its white, reflective coat. Diurnal variations such as seasons, humidity, latitude, altitude, influences variation in radiant heat loads. The rest 15% of heat immediately absorbed by the under lying black skin. When the animal has nine blacks, total body skin will be black these cattle reduces heat load through behavioral means, and postural adjustments, also orientation towards sun make it protect its own parts through shade and thus reducing heat loads. Long legs of this breed helps in minimizing absorption of solar radiated heat. Light carriage also helps are exposed to sun.

Conductive and convective heat loads on these cattle transfer between surroundings and direct contact through soil and bedding, drinking water, feeds and fodders. Avoiding lying down stretching its body parts also helps.
Light is the most constant factor having vigor. Light influences on pituitary, shedding of hair on seasons, increase in metabolism, vision. High light intensity decreases cell wall content and increases water-soluble carbohydrates in vegetation and thus influences livestock.

Relative Humidity:
% of moisture in air is humidity. Air moisture content influences animals heat balance particularly in warm climates where evaporative cooling is crucial to homeothermy. High humidity associated with high temperature favors less nutritive value of feeds and fodders, of ten the stock are light colored, with pigmented skins, and shade lovers. These influence humidity aerial movement, transpiration, rainfall and temperature.

Characters associated with hardiness and thriftiness:
• Has the ability to reverse down metabolism during extremes of scarcity.
• Efficient forager and does not force the calf for foraging.
• Fruitful in milk with exact fat percentage to keep the calves at rapid growth.
• Tight sheath and small teats to avoid injuries of grazing animals.
• Sloppy rumps are suitable for quick and hard work, having 4 sacral vertebrae.
• Have more number of bigger, functional, sweat glands per unit area of the skin.
• Having white or light colored, short, sleek, densely, reflecting and glistering coat, which will not attract vectors and dislodge them with insulting character.
• Skin, pigmented, black, mellow, loose, thick and presence of subcutaneous panniculus carnosis muscle, which repels vectors by twitching.
• Highest heat tolerant coefficient.
• Basal metabolic rate low.
• Nutritional uniqueness, ability to convert low protein, high fiber roughage materials into high-grade foodstuffs with the aid of Omasal symbionts, such as thrives and performs well on inferior fodders.
• Crude protein utilization is highest.
• Perform well where even pastures are seasonal, scanty, and sparse.
• Spent much time in grazing even during daytime, seek shade only 3% of their total grazing time.
• Slow to cycle, when under nutritional stress or lactation stress, but response to cycle is immediate when nutrients are plenty.

Ongole Breed Tract:
Originally the breed tract comprises areas where there is no assured or commercial crops, leaving cattle raising as the only profitable proposition by selling bull ghee (Clarified butter), since crops and cultivation are not profitable. The farmers are quite aware of the food, investment, manure, forage, draught animal power and employment linkages, improving through subsistence security, transfer of nutrients, modification of vegetation and finally increasing the human support capacity of the land through Ongole breed of cattle. These cattle raising formed a part of risk education strategy with agriculture, as livestock is a saving account and their calves are interest. The farmer is quite conscious of the herd management policy options on direct costs and indirect costs, breeding, off take, purchase and culling. It clearly indicates this breed is originally dairy, later transformed as dual purpose i.e., dairy and draft animals, presently mostly a draught animal.
The breed tract comprised between rivers Krishna on Northern side, Pennar River on Southern side, nalamalai range of forest on Western side and Coromandai coast on Eastern side lying between 15.00 to 16.10’ east latitude and 79.04’ to 80.02’ north longitude.

The rivulets gundlakamma, madigandi, Paleru, Muneru, Musi, Chilakaleru. Whose extensive banks became excellent grazing areas. With population growth and consequent demand for cereals the Brahmini bull selection system has been oriented towards draft characters. The soils are black loam to black clay having large quantities of lime with soil pH of 6.9 to 7.2 most favorable for notification bacteria and luxuriant growth of legumes. Annual rain fall of about 900mm with about 50 rainy days out of which 2/3 roads are from southwest monsoon and 1/3 from northeast monsoon supporting most of the cereal crops. The average ambient temperature of maximum 32 degrees Celsius and minimum of 23.5 degrees Celsius and average relative humidity of 79%.

After formation of Krishna and Godavari Ayacuts during 1850’s with assured irrigation and increased demand for draft services, the breed tract extended to Krishna, Godavari and northern circars. Original tract is for breeding and extended tract for breeding and rearing, further ceded districts and Nalgonda and Mohaboob Nagar districts as rearing tracts. Extension of breed tract forced for 2 reasons. The demand for draft services from the area and generally the same species need the same resources and thus are bound to complete for the same, except when they are colonizing a new habitat, as such expansion of the tract.

Ongole Cattle Breeding:
Before organized efforts of the colonial rule, the institution of Brahmini Bull system in the ongole area has substantially improved the breed by avoiding inferior breeding and inbreeding. It has been the custom in the area that dedicating a young bull selected by a village committee funded by village rich men or the local diety and the bull being branded at a ceremony either with Sanku, Chakra, Trisul, then becomes common property and Brahmini bull is the property of the village and covers the village herd, this is how a small farmer provided the stud services. The changes in cropping pattern from cereals to commercial crops like chillis, and Tobacco during the 1930’s and cotton during 1960’s have badly affected the breeds feed resources.

With the introduction and expansion of artificial insemination programs rapidly has resulted in affecting the distribution of breeding bulls under various schemes have been stopped and there is decay in the institution of Brahmini Bull system which primarily supported the breed for centuries. During 1960’s introduction of Taurus breeds through aid programs has helped large scale indiscriminate breeding in the valuable Ongole herds. Like all other resources, the livestock wealth should also to be carefully and properly utilized and preserved. Planners in an attempt to improve milk production in Ongole cattle did many mistakes. One major error was the perception that output reflects efficiency, Hence the use of exotics on Ongoles to improve indigenous stock.

Output was very often the main criteria for which a breed was imported. Finally after sinking in a lot of money and time, we could learn that genetics is only one and often not the main tool that can ensure greater efficiency of output. Husbandry, survival, health, reproduction efficiency of feed utilization parameters becomes important. In a craze for cross breeding the excellent government herds built up for decades were also not spared by the planners. The saying that breeding policy should depend on animal, existing production potential, anticipated, goals, environment, man and economic development rather than prejudice, taste and trivial dictates.

Character associated with disease resistance:
• Premunity high.
• Reticulo endothelial system well developed.
• Resistant to eye cancer.
• Through their coating, insulating, secretary characters are more resistant to tick born diseases.
• Zebum secretion is fly repellent.
• Flexible tail tip, having cartilage in place of last 3 or 4 vertebrae helps as a brush to repel vectors.

The effects of climatologically variables on Ongoles are varied. High external heat load due to both radiant and high air temperature exposure depends on degree, and duration. On acute exposure the animal tries to accommodate rather than combat. As a routine the metabolic heat and the catabolic heat produced with in the body also needs to be eliminated. When heat loss mechanism reaches its maximum values the animal resorts to methods of reducing heat production in an effort to achieve homoeothermic. Reduction in calarogenic hormones accompanies decrease in Basal Metabolic rate, voluntary feed intake, muscular and ruminal activity and changes in release of gonadotrophic hormone and thus reduced sexual activity. Ability of animals to maintain core temperature in physiological adaptability and the ability to maintain production/reproduction/growth rates in productive adaptability. These two are often at variance.

Thus selection of traits of physiological adaptability is often incompatible with improvement of production and consequently they are undesirable. Mere reproductive opportunism is generally short lived, if the adaptive ness of the organism is not maintained and almost invariably proves self-limiting. This is not the case with the Ongoles. Long range fitness of ongole cattle population depends on adaptation, through the stability, variability and the rate of environmental changes helped through domestication by the farmers as they are treated as family pets. Selection of Ongoles, which attain homeothermy mostly by heat loss mechanism without resorting to reducing the heat production would be those of choice from economic view point.

Soil pH:
No larger breeds of livestock were ever bred in acid pH soils. The soil pH being 7.2 in tract most favorable for legumes. So it increased muscle protein and skeletal size. Cattle in acid pH soils are small in size and are shade lovers.

Feeding:
The fodder crops, grasses and trees that supported the breed for centuries need to be enlightened. The fodder crops either grain or crops or crop residues available from sorghum, zeamays, crotalaria, macrotylma, vigna, cicer, pennisestum, sataria, oryza, kollaganjeru, fodder trees like acacia, azaridachta and fiscus are also used to shade trees. The fodder grasses that were grown naturally on rivers and rivulets banks, private grazing lands and common grazing lands include andropogan, iseilema, indigofera grasses species has maintained this breed for centuries. After formation of ayacut the Ongole cattle need to go to forest for grazing from June/July and return only after December/January, surviving predation and theft later attending to threshing operations of cereals. The migration of population from rural to urban areas, changes in society and pressure on land working against the interest of Ongole cattle, since they are located specific the available poor, scanty, sparse, and seasonal fodders which are low in protein and high in fiber need to be improved by inter-cultivation of legumes, intercropping, chaffing, treatment by way of extensive use of agro industrial bye products should be extensively used.

Characters associated with self-reliance:
• Enduring and estimable.
• Docile but alert.
• Intelligent and respond well for treatment if handled with love, skill, and care.
• Athletic in nature, with majestic appearance, head high, square walk and quick step, giving noble but heavy look.
• Try to move in groups to avoid predators.
• Highest ability to self-preserve and longevity is more than 15 years.
• Long bodied with big skeletal size and with ability to gain weight more perceptible after 2 years of age and massive.
• Lack in heart girth due to preponderance of draught type.
• Vitality and Vigor unique in young ones.
• Outstanding Mothering ability.
• Highest combining ability for cross breeding and formation of new breeds.
• Highest rustling ability to walk long distances in search of food and water and to pace with the herds.
• Marked tolerance to direct sunlight and radiation.
• Loose skin, hump, dewlap and other appendages contribute 12% excess surface area per unit weight over Taurus breeds.
• Outward disposition of horns helps defend from predators.
• Have highest coetaneous and lowest respiratory heat loss as such panting is less.
• Have highest multiple ability of adaptation for climate fodder and pathogens.
• Sensitiveness, intelligence and shyness make them more independent and less dependent on man, more energetic and resourceful.
• Reproductive uniqueness, higher reproduction rates and more number of lifetime calves high calf survival rates.
• Calving ease and minimum dystokias, with more birth weight of cattle.

Skin:
The skin covers body and provides protection literally a thermostat for the body. Heat flows from core organs like brain, heart, liver, spleen, intestines, and lungs to surface of body and from surface it should be sent out to environment through radiation, conduction and convection. Skin contains sebascous and sweat glands, muscles, roots of hair, fallacies and capillaries. When all nine blacks are present, the whole skin is pigmented and black. The presence of subcutaneous “panniculus carnosis” muscle helps in repelling vectors through twitching. When sweating/respiratory heat loss is 6 in zebus where as it is only 4 in Taurus breeds. Water resorption in kidney and colon is double that of the Taurus. Though skin studies were done in 10 indigenous breeds in India no work was done in Ongoles, but the skin type may lie between type 1 and type 3. Skin being highly vascular more heat is sent out as sensible heat loss or diffusion heat loss. In Ongoles evaporative and sweat contribute much heat loss.

Ongoles cattle skin secretes zebum, which filters ultraviolet rays. Due to high vascular they bleed profusely if punctured and wounds will heal quickly. Being black in color the 15% of solar heat allowed by coat to pass on is at once absorbed by the skin. Our farmers are so intelligent that umbrellas are black in color but in villages they used to stitch white cloth over the black cloth on the analogy of the structure of Ongole cattle i.e. white external coat and black underlying skin. During evolutionary process the body temperature has been increased, at the same time tolerance for that temperature failed to take place in male gametes. This was circumvented through effective thermoregulation mechanism of tests.

Reference:
Joshi, N.R., Phillips, R.W. (1953) Zebu Cattle of India and Pakistan, FAO Agriculture Studies No. 19, Publ. By FAO, Rome, 256 pp.
Dr. A. Madhusudhana, 74,Veterinary Colony, Ring Road, VIJAYAWADA, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA, PIN 520008, Phone 91866-453707

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All About of Brahman

Brahman cattle, breed of beef cattle developed in the S United States in the early 1900s by combining several breeds or strains of zebu cattle of India. Brahman cattle have a very distinctive appearance with a hump over the shoulders, loose skin under the throat, and large drooping ears; they are generally light to medium gray in color. The breed has contributed to beef production through cross breeding with European cattle, e.g., Hereford and Angus. These hybrid cattle exhibit hybrid vigor, i.e., they generally exhibit

growth and reproductive rates greater than either of the parental types. Several new breeds of cattle have been developed in the United States based on Brahman-European crosses, some important ones being the Beefmaster (Brahman combined with Shorthorn cattle and Hereford cattle), Brangus (Brahman combined with Angus cattle), Charbray (Brahman combined with Charolais cattle), and Santa Gertrudis (Brahman combined with Shorthorn). Brahman cattle have been extensively exported.

I believe the most common question is what is the hump? The hump is a muscle and it makes a very nice roast. There is lots of marbling (specks of fat) in it and that makes it very flavorful. Are Brahman cattle beef or dairy? They are a beef animal. Do they make good crosses? Yes they make excellent crosses. They will cross well with all breeds of cattle. There are many resistared breeds that are made up from crosses such as Brangus, Beefmaster, Brahmousin, Charbray, Simbra, Santa Gertrudis, Braford, just to list a few. Are Brahmans mean? No they are a very docile animal, but as any other animal they will be mean if they are treated mean. Yes Brahmans are used as rodeo bulls but that doesn't mean they are mean. Are all Brahmans gray? No there are red ones and some grays so dark they look black.

HEAT TOLLERANCE Without question, Brahman's ability to withstand high temperatures make it the ideal beef animal for hot humid areas. This ability to withstand high, humid temperatures can be traced to a number of breed characteristics. These include short, thick and glossy hair to reflect much of the sun's rays. There skin is dark pigmented and loose, and the breed's sweating ability contributes materially to heat tolerance. Brahmans also produce less body heat in warm weather than their European counterparts waste heat in produced from feed at the expense of growth and milk production.

WITHSTANDING LOW TEMPERATURES While Brahmans have superb tolerance to heat, they also have the ability to perform in colder temperatures. In colder weather, the skin of Brahmans contract, increasing the thickness of the hide and density of hair, which becomes long and coarse and underlaid by a dense, fur-like undercoat.
DISEASE RESISTANCE Closely associated with the ability of the Brahman to withstand hot temperatures is its great resistance to diseases. Brahmans are virtually free of eye cancer because of dark pigmentation around the eyes. Brahmans also rarely ever contract costly pinkeye.

INSECT RESISTANCE Brahmans possess natural resistance to insects common to cattle. Their light color attracts fewer insects, and a short thick hair coat prevents penetration by many insects. Also, Brahmans have a well-developed subcutaneous muscle layer, enabling theme to dislodge many insects by shaking the skin.
RESISTANCE TO BLOATING Because they feed lightly and frequently, or from other causes, Brahmans are highly resistant to bloat, Death losses rarely occur from this cause.

LONGEVITY When considered on the basis of breed averages, the Brahman is unequalled in length of productive life, generally producing up to 50 % longer then European breeds as long as 15 or 20 years. Simple computations will show that a cow that stays in production 50 % longer will produce 60 % more offspring during her lifetime.

REPODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE An animals' ability to reproduce regularly a big, growthy calf every year from cows and the ability to breed a normal number of cows in a given breeding season for bulls is a mark of environmental adaptation.
MOTHERING ABILITY Brahman and Brahman hybrid cows have one of the strongest mothering instinct of any breed - they stay with their calves and protect them from eminent danger. Being serious and inquisitive, they are instantly aware of all within their surroundings, They readily recognize and avoid which promises harm and seek that which is rewarding. Brahman cows produce bountiful quantities of milk for their calves,pouring much of their energy into their offspring. Average milk yields of Brahman and Brahman hybrid cows is about one-fourth more than that from other breed cows - research gives Brahmans a 22 % advantage in early lactation and a 44 $ advantage during late lactation. Butterfat content is high 5.17 % in one study with an accompanying high level of proteins.

CALVING EASE Brahman females characteristically produces a small calf at birth, weighting only 60 to 65 pounds. Because of this and the large pelvic area and the absence of disproportionate head and shoulders at birth, calving problems in the breed are virtually non-existent. F-1 Brahman hybrid females posses most to this capacity to calve with ease.

RUSTLING ABILITY Because of there hardiness, thriftiness, and rustling ability, Brahmans surpass all other breeds under c conditions of poor range and drought. They show a greater tendency to feed on shrubs, leaves of trees, vines and other course vegetation than any other breed. Brahmans havethe ability to walk and cover great areas of rough terrain with out fatigue or lameness. They possess sound bone, ample length of leg and freedom of movement of the leg and thigh.

CROSSBREEDING Brahman has earned it reputation as"Crossbreeding's Common Denominator" Every major breed developed created in the United States contains Brahman as a base breed. Hybrid vigor is greatest when unrelated breeds are used. Brahman, a Bos Indicus or humped type of cattle, giving unrelated to the Bos Taurus or non-humped cattle, giving Brahman cattle a distinct advantage in hybrid vigor- growth, feed efficiency and conversion, and lean beef production. As all segments of the beef industry turn to lager framed faster-growing calves, the Brahman hybrid with the "bit of ear" is in the forefront as being the type of animal sought by the feeder and subsequently the packer.

http://www.infoplease.com/
http://members.tripod.com/~Rocking_BS_Ranch

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Pemuliaan Ternak (Genetika dalam Peternakan)

Sejalan dengan tingkat kemajuan pembangunan maka kebutuhan manusia terus meningkat. Pemenuhan kebutuhan pangan meliputi karbohidrat, lemak, protein, mineral, vitamin dan hormon. Penelitian dan penerapan hasil penelitian di berbagai bidang ilmu dan teknologi terus diupayakan dan dikembangkan agar pemenuhan kebutuhan terwujud.
Di pihak lain manusia dalam usaha memenuhi kebutuhan hidupnya berusaha memanfaatkan segala sistem yang ada di sekitarnya. Salah satu sistem yang sangat penting adalah Sistem Bio-Sosio-Ekonomi yang (Download dalam bentuk file, Click Here)bernama peternakan.

Sistem ini sangat penting karena menghasilkan bahan pangan manusia yang bergizi tinggi, yaitu protein hewani. Oleh karena itu melalui peternakan manusia tidak henti-hentinya mengusahakan peningkatan produksi ternak yang berupa protein hewani, baik berupa daging, susu dan telur. Usaha-usaha tersebut antara lain melalui penerapan ilmu dan teknologi beternak yang disebut pemuliaan ternak. Setelah komputer diciptakan maka perkembangan dan penerapan pemuliaan ternak makin maju dengan pesat.

Komputer adalah suatu alat elektronika yang dikembangkan untuk membantu menyelesaikan pekerjaan dan memecahkan persoalan yang dihadapi oleh manusia dalam mencoba mengikuti perkembangan, kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi. Komputer mempunyai bagian utama perangkat keras dan perangkat lunak yang berupa paket program, namun yang paling penting adalah ketrampilan manusia, pemakai komputer tersebut. Karena alat ciptaan manusia maka komputer dibuat sedemikian rupa sehingga dapat digunakan sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan keinginan manusia yang makin lama semakin meningkat, baik kuantitas maupun kualitasnya. Oleh karena itu komputer harus dapat memenuhi syarat dari sudut kemampuan menyelesaikan pekerjaan ditinjau dari kuantitas dan kualitasnya.

Pemanfaatan sistem komputer di berbagai bidang kehidupan manusia sudah sejak lama dimulai. Pemanfaatan tersebut antara lain untuk, memecahkan masalah, analisis data dan simulasi. Khusus di bidang pemuliaan ternak manfaatan komputer di gunakan dalam program pencatatan produksi, penaksir hasil seleksi, analisis data untuk penaksiran parameter genetik untuk tujuan peningkatan produksi melalui peningkatan mutu genetik.
Bab Pendahuluan akan disampaikan dengan sistematik, 1) Peranan dan Pemanfaatan Pemuliaan Ternak; 2) Pemanfaatan Sistem Komputer di bidang Pemuliaan Ternak; 3) Harapan untuk Masa Depan.

Peranan dan Manfaat Pemuliaan Ternak

Sejarah Singkat Perkembangan Pemuliaan Ternak
Dalam berbagai kepustakaan dapat ditelusuri bahwa pemuliaan ternak dikembangkan mulai tahun 1760 dan dilaksanakan oleh Robert Bakewell di Inggris. Pengembangan dimulai dengan ternak kuda, domba dan sapi. Keberhasilannya terletak pada tiga hal, yaitu pertama, dia telah menetapkan sasaran yang dia inginkan misal mendapatkan sapi potong yang berbentuk pendek dan cepat dewasa yang waktu itu belum ada. Kedua, dia tidak menjual ternak jantan tetapi meminjamkannya kepada peternak lain dan peminjam mengembalikannya apabila pejantan tersebut mewariskan mutu genetik yang baik. Ketiga, membiakkan ternak yang baik dengan yang baik, tanpa menghiraukan hubungan kekerabatan yang ada. Sebagai akibatnya sering dilak-sanakan perkawinan silang dalam yakni perkawinan antar saudara. Silang dalam tersebut mengarah dihasilkannya trah yang relatif murni, meskipun tanpa diikuti pencatatan.
Metode Backewell ditiru secara luas dan mulai ditetapkan syarat-syarat trah. Trah yang relatip murni tersebut dibawa ke Amerika, kemudian dibiakkan murni dan disilangkan dengan rumpun lokal.
Asosiasi trah mulai dibentuk pada periode 1870 - 1900, mempunyai andil besar dalam pengembangan pemuliaan ternak atau perbaikan genetik ternak. Periode ini ditandai dengan pengembangan buku registrasi untuk menjamin kemurnian trah diikuti dengan semangat kompetitif oleh berbagai asosiasi trah. Terjadilah penyisihan ternak berdasar kemurnian trah sesuai dengan syarat yang ditetapkan oleh asosiasi meskipun belum berdasar pada keunggulan genetik. Namun tetap diakui bahwa sumbangan asosiasi tersebut sangat besar terhadap perkembangan peternakan di Amerika.
Periode setelah asosiasi trah adalah pengembangan inseminasi buatan (IB). Spallanzani pada tahun 1780 melaksanakan IB pada anjing, kemudian pada 1899 di Rusia dikembangkan pada ternak dan mulai 1930 di coba di Eropa. Inseminasi buatan pada sapi perah di mulai 1938 oleh Perry di New Jersey Dairy Extension Service. Ide lB menyebar ibarat seganas api dan banyak dibentuk organisasi atau kelompok IB (Warwick dan Legates, 1979)
Periode setelah 1971 keberhasilan IB mulai dilaporkan oleh Departemen Pertanian Amerika. Dilaporkan bahwa IB telah digunakan pada 8643.089 ekor sapi, 3620 pejantan digunakan untuk menginseminasi rata-rata 3620 ekor sapi betina (7 juta lebih sapi perah dan 1 juta lebih sapi pedaging). Pada tahun 1971 penggunaan semen beku mulai didaftar. Sampai 1987 Program lB telah dilaporkan dapat membantu meningkatkan efektivitas penerapan pemuliaan ternak dengan seleksi dan sistem perkawinan.

Pengertian Pemuliaan Ternak
Berdasar denotasi dan konotasi ilmu, pemuliaan ternak adalah suatu cabang ilmu biologi, genetika terapan dan metode untuk peningkatan atau perbaikan genetik ternak. Pemuliaan ternak diartikan sebagai suatu teknologi beternak yang digunakan untuk meningkatkan mutu genetik. Mutu genetik adalah kemampuan warisan yang berasal dari tetua dan moyang individu. Kemampuan ini akan dimunculkan setelah bekerja sama dengan pengaruh faktor lingkungan di tempat ternak tersebut dipelihara.

Pemunculannya disebut performans atau sehari-hari disebut sebagai produksi dan reproduksi ternak, contohnya antara lain produksi susu, telur, daging, berat lahir, pertambahan berat badan, berat sapih dan jumlah anak sepelahiran.
Kemampuan genetik ternak, dapat juga disebut kemampuan bereproduksi dan berproduksi, tidak dapat dilihat, tetapi dapat ditaksir. Prinsip dasar pemuliaan ternak mengajarkan bahwa kemampuan genetik di wariskan dari tetua ke anak, secara acak. Diartikan bahwa tidak ada dua anak, apa lagi lebih yang memiliki kemampuan yang persis sama kecuali pada kasus monozygote identical twin (dua anak berasal dari satu sel telur). Kemampuan tersebut selanjutnya akan dimunculkan dalam bentuk produksi yang terukur di bawah faktor lingkungan yang tertentu.

Kemampuan genetik tersebut secara sederhana dapat digambarkan sebagai lingkaran kecil yang terletak di dalam lingkaran yang lebih besar. Lingkaran yang lebih besar adalah gambaran pemunculan kemampuan genetik di bawah lingkungan seluas daerah antara dua lingkaran tersebut. Apabila lingkaran lingkungan kita perbesar pemunculan kemampuan genetik tidak akan dapat melampaui batas lingkaran besar. Hal ini disebabkan pemunculan kemampuan genetik itu ada batasnya, yang dikontrol oleh banyak faktor. Setiap individu memiliki gambaran lingkaran kecil dan besar yang berbeda. Kalau faktor kontrol tersebut tidak ada maka seekor kelinci akan dapat dibesarkan menjadi seekor sapi. Tidak demikian yang dimaksud dengan kemampuan genetik. Kalau lingkaran lingkaràn kita kecilkan, maka pemunculan kemampuan genetik akan ikut mengecil.

Pada penerapan pemuliaan ternak hal yang pertama dikatakan pemborosan sedang peristiwa kedua dikatakan kebodohan. Masalah yang dihadapi dalam penerapan pemuliaan ternak, bagaimana dapat mengurangi pemborosan dan tidak menjalankan kebodohan. Masalah selanjutnya, apa yang dapat dan tidak dapat dilakukan untuk memunculkan kemampuan genetik tersebut ?
Apa yang dapat dilakukan ada dua hal, yakni mengontrol pewarisan kemampuan genetik melalui seleksi dan sistem perkawinan. Selanjutnya diikuti dengan penyediaan faktor lingkungan yang sesuai sampai tingkat yang sebaik mungkin dan masih menguntungkan secara ekonomis. Apa yang tidak mungkin dilakukan adalah memunculkan kemampuan genetik di luar batas yang dimungkinkan.

Pemuliaan ternak dapat ditinjau sebagai suatu metode, maka dalam mencapai tujuan memerlukan unsur-unsur pengamatan, percobaan, definisi, penggolongan, pengukuran, generalisasi, serta tindakan lainnya. Selanjutnya metode tersebut juga membutuhkan langkah-langkah penentuan masalah, perumusan hipotesis, pengumpulan data, penurunan kesimpulan dan pengujian hasil (Gie, 1984). Oleh karena itu pengembangan pemuliaan ternak memerlukan penelitian dan penerapan hasil penelitian yang berkelanjutan. Siapapun yang tertarik akan meningkatkan peranan dan pemanfaatan pemuliaan ternak harus mulai dengan mendalami dasar dan prinsip teori genetika terapan dan melanjutkan dengan penelitian serta penerapan hasil penelitiannya (Adjisoedarmo, 1977 –1991)

Peranan Pemuliaan Ternak
Dua tugas atau peran utama pemuliaan ternak di bidang genetika adalah untuk mengetahui kemampuan genetik ternak dengan menggunakan catatan produksi. Kedua, meningkatkan potensi efisiensi gunakan seleksi dan sistem perkawinan. Peran tersebut tidak akan dapat berjalan sendirinya tanpa di dahului atau secara bersamaan usaha perbaikan faktor lingkungan di tempat ternak dipelihara.
Peranan yang menonjol pemuliaan ternak dalam penyusunan kombinasi genetik adalah peningkatan rerata produksi populasi dan generasi ke generasi berikutnya. Peningkatan tersebut misal berupa peningkatan produksi susu per laktasi, kadar lemak susu, berat lahir, pertambahan berat badan, berat sapih, berat umur tertentu, jumlah anak sepelahiran, berat karkas, kualitas daging, berat wol, diameter wol, ketebalan lemak, produksi telur, daya tetas serta ketahanan terhadap penyakit.
Berdasar pengembangan dan penerapan pemuliaan ternak maka peningkatan produksi ternak dilaksanakan lewat tiga strategi dan bermacam taktik. Tiga strategi tersebut adalah peningkatan populasi, peningkatan produksi per individu atau rataan populasi dan stratifikasi penggunaan tanah yang meliputi ekstensifikasi, intensifikasi dan diversifikasi vertikal dan horizontal, serta rehabili tasi. Berbagai macam taktik digunakan, antara lain perbaikan tatalaksana, program pencatatan produksi, penggunaan perkawinan silang, kawin tatar, penggunaan metode seleksi, teknik inseminasi buatan, penyerempakan birahi, alih janin dan yang paling mutakhir adalah rekayasa genetika.

Ternak di daerah tropik berbeda dengan di daerah subtropik, umumnya berbentuk lebih kecil dan produksinya lebih rendah (Mason dan Buvanendran, 1982). Pertanyaan yang dapat diajukan adalah - Apakah perbedaan tersebut karena faktor iklim apakah keadaan tersebut dapat diubah dengan pergantian ternak, atau pergantian cara pemeliharaan ?. Untuk dapat menjawab pertanyaan tersebut maka diperlukan bantuan pemuliaan ternak lewat penelitian dan penerapan hasilnya.
Penelitian pemuliaan ternak khususnya seleksi, pada dasarnya mempunyai tiga tujuan. Pertama, untuk menguji teori seleksi, kedua mengumpulkan data parameter genetik, respons fisiologik yang selanjutnya digunakan untuk me nyempurnakan metode seleksi. Ketiga, digunakan untuk membandingkan kriteria seleksi atau sistem perkawinan yang digunakan (Adjisoedarmo, 1976; Adjisoedarmo, 1989).
Contoh penerapan hasil penelitian dari Fakultas Peternakan Unsoed yang telah disebar luaskan penggunaannya di pedesaan adalah Kalender Reproduski domba dan kambing (Adjisoedarmo dan Amsar , 1983). Kalender ini sudah digunakan di 300 kelompok peternak domba dan kambing PPWP (Program Pengembangan Wilayah Propinsi) Jawa Tengah, yang tersebar di 145 desa, di 40 Kecamatan dan 7 Kabupaten (Demak, Jepara, Kudus, Pati, Rembang, Blora dan Grobogan) dan telah disebarkan juga di empat kabupaten di Propinsi Bengkulu (Adjisoedarmo, 1989; Padmowiyoto, 1988). Hasil penelitian metode pengujian pejantan kambing untuk membandingkan keunggulan genetiknya, di bawah kondisi pedesaan telah dilaporkan (Adjisoedarmo, 1991).

Manfaat Pemuliaan Ternak
Pemanfaatan pemuliaan ternak dapat memberikan gambaran tingkat produksi yang diperoleh. Di Amerika, pada waktu dilaporkan bahwa rata-rata produksi susu per ekor sebesar 4500 kg per tahun, produksi tersebut ditaksir masih berada 500 – 1000 kg di bawah kemampuan berproduksi yang dapat dimunculkan di bawah kondisi lingkungan yang lebih baik, masih jauh dari produksi di bawah kondisi lingkungan yang terbaik (Warwick dan Legates, 1979). Pernyataan ini menunjukkan bahwa pemuliaan ternak memberikan informasi apa yang masih dapat dan perlu dilakukan untuk meningatkan produksi.

Pemunculan kemampuan produksi secara maksimum atau tidak bergantung pada para peternak, lembaga, organisasi dan pemerintah. Keputusan yang diambil harus ditinjau dari berbagai faktor, terutama faktor keuntungan yang akan diperoleh peternak. Kalau produksi ditingkatkan menjadi maksimal tetapi harga pasar rendah maka akan merugikan (contoh. kasus pembuangan susu, pemusnahan ribuan domba di Australia ).

Oleh karena itu perlu dicatat bahwa tidak akan muncul keajaiban dalam penerapan pemuliaan ternak (Warwick dkk., 1983) tetapi lebih cenderung merupakan tampilan dan harapan serta kekecewaan (Lush, 1963). Pemuliaan ternak dapat memberikan informasi apa yang mungkin dapat dilakukan dan hasil yang kemungkinan besar dapat diperoleh. Hasil yang muncul di lapangan itulah yang benar dan merupakan informasi dan materi yang dapat kita gunakan untuk menentukan langkah berikutnya. Namun demikian yang sudah dapat dibuktikan kepastiannya adalah bahwa peningkatan genetik hasil penerapan pemuliaan ternak tidak akan hilang selama penerapan seleksi dan sistem perkawinan tidak dihentikan.

Metode Seleksi
Metode seleksi dan penggunaannya untuk meningkatkan produksi, telah banyak digunakan untuk ternak domba, yang mungkin dapat diadopsi di Indonesia.
Seleksi dibedakan untuk antar trah atau rumpun dan dalam bangsa. Seleksi dalam bangsa dibedakan untuk satu karakteristik dan banyak karakteristik. Untuk meningkatkan satu karakteristik digunakan seleksi individu dan famili. Untuk perbaikan lebih dan satu karakteristik digunakan metode 1) seleksi berurutan (Tandem selection), 2) seleksi penyisihan bebas bertingkat (Independent Culling Level) dan 3) seleksi dengan indeks (Warwick dkk., 1983; Adjisoedarmo, 1989).

Sistem perkawinan
Sistem perkawinan yang paling banyak digunakan dalam penerapan pemuliaan ternak adalah perkawinan silang. Alasan menggunakan sistem ini ialah karena dapat digunakan untuk menghasilkan efek heterosis. Kalau efek ini muncul maka produksi rata-rata anak akan melebihi produksi rata-rata tetuanya. Heterosis dapat menyebabkan ternak silangan memiliki produksi 1-17% di atas produksi rata-rata tetuanya (Lasley, 1972). Sistem ini sudah lama di gunakan di Indonesia sehingga sekarang kita memiliki sapi P0, domba Sufeg, kambing PE, Jawa Randu, Kelinci Rexlok, dan hasil lain yang belum berhasil diteliti.

Apabila perbaikan genetik telah diperoleh, masalah yang dihadapi adalah bagaimana mempertahankan dan meningkatkan hasil perbaikan tersebut. Mereka yang telah meyakini peranan dan kemanfaatan pemuliaan ternak akan meneruskan usaha perbaikan genetik karena akhirnya waktu tenaga dan dana yang telah dikeluarkan akan diganti dengan keuntungan hasil penjualan produksi yang makin meningkat. Beberapa contoh keberhasilan pada ternak Domba dan Sapi diuraikan di bawah ini.

Domba
Sebagai contoh misal perkembangan peternakan domba di New Zealand. Pada tahun 1948 mulai dilakukan penelitian menggunakan Domba Romney New Zealand yang memiliki rataan cempe sepelahiran per tahun 1,13 ekor. Pada tahun 1972 rataan tersebut berhasil diperbaiki menjadi 1,75 ekor cempe sepelahiran per tahun (176 cempe per 100 ekor induk yg dikawinkan ). Dilaporkan pula bahwa penerapan pemuliaan ternak menghasilkan domba Romney New Zealand yang memiliki berat lahir rata-rata 4.3 - 4,9 kg dan berat sapih umur 4-5 bulan adalah 25 - 30 kg untuk kelahiran tunggal, 3,9 -4,5 kg dan 23 kg untuk cempe kelahiran ganda ( Dalton dan Rae, 1978).
Domba ekor tipis di Jawa Tengah yang belum pernah merasakan manfaat penerapan pemuliaan ternak, dibawah kondisi penelitian mampu menghasilkan 1,6 ekor cempe per induk per kelahiran dan berat 16 - 17 kg pada umur penyapihan 100 hari (Adjisoedarmo, 1977; Adjisoedarmo,1979).

Sapi Perah
Manfaat penerapan pemuliaan ternak di negara subtropik pada sapi perah telah dilaporkan di Denmark, Swedia, Firlandia dan Norwegia dalam periode 1960 - 1972. Manfaat yang diperoleh tersebut berupa kenaikan produksi susu dan 3000 kg pada 1950 menjadi 5500 kg di tahun 1972. Hasil ini masih jauh di atas yang dapat dicapai di Indonesia, seperti. yang dilaporkan di Jawa Tengah dan Jawa Barat. Sapi perah di BPT Baturaden, Jawa Tengah, dari tahun 1979 sampai 1984 dilaporkan mencapai produksi rata-rata per lataktasi (305 hari 2 x ME) 2492 - 2945 liter atau 8 -9,7 liter per hari(Anonimus, 1984).
Hasil penggunaan frozen semen pejantan yang telah diuji dengan uji keturunan dilaporkan dapat menghasilkan induk bibit yang berproduksi di atas 4000-liter per laktasi di daerah Jawa Barat (Anonimus,1986). Hasil ini memberikan petunjuk bahwa IB merupakan tehnik untuk menyebarkan mutu genetik unggul. Sedangkan mutu genetik yang unggul tersebut diwariskan sehingga keturunan pejantan tersebut memiliki mutu genetik rata-rata lebih tinggi dibanding sebelum penggunaan pejantan unggul tersebut.

Penerapan seleksi dan sistem perkawinan untuk ternak ruminansia di daerah tropik telah diuraikan oleh Mason dan Buvanendran (1982) dan diterbitkan oleh FAO. Penerapan ini meliputi untuk ternak sapi perah, potong, domba dan kambing. Secara teoritik kenaikan produksi susu dapat dinaikkan sebesar dua persen per tahun.

Sapi Pedaging
Contoh manfaat penerapan pemuliaan ternak pada sapi pedaging telah diuraikan oleh Adjisoedarmo (1976). Seleksi untuk sapi potong mempunyai dua tujuan pokok. Pertama memilih pejantan untuk menghasilkan keturunan yang langsung dijual atau dipotong dan kedua memilih pejantan untuk menghasilkan keturunan yang akan dipakai sebagai bibit. Untuk tujuan pertama peningkatan mutu genetik didasarkan pada laju pertumbuhan harian rata-rata (0,3 - 1 k~ per ban).

Jenjang keunggulan trah sapi (diantara 280 trah sapi di dunia), berdasar kriteria pertambahan berat badan dan penggunaannya dalam perkawinan silang telah dilaporkan Preston (1973), berturut-turut, dari tinggi ke rendah, Charolais, Simmental, German Gelbief. Rogrnanola, Marchigiana, Chianina, Lomousin, Blond d’aquitame, Mame Anjou, Brown Swiss, Friesien, South Devon, Santa Gretudis, Danish Red, Devon, Brahman, Hereford, Angus, Shorton.
Pemerintah Indonesia mulai Pelita II telah berketetapan mengadakan kawin tatar dengan American Brahaman. Didukung dengan pengembangan teknik IB, maka hasilnya telah dapat dirasakan terutama oleh peternak di Jawa Tengah. Angka tinggi domba, lingkar dada dan panjang badan pedet hasil persilangan P0 dengan American Brahman, yang dilaporkan Munadi (1975) dan Kabupaten Rembang dengan mudah sekarang dapat dilampaui(Adjisoedarmo, 1990a).

Produktifitas sapi Ongole dan persilangannya telah dilaporkan Hardjo subroto (1988). Dilaporkan bahwa pertambahan berat harian Brahman x P0 dan Ongole x P0 pada tingkat pra sapih adalah 0,64 kg/hr dan 0,62 kg/hr sedangkan pada lepas sapih 0,25 kg dan 0,25 kg/hr.
Gambaran mengenai mutu genetik sapi Bali telah dilaporkan oleh Martoyo (1988). Dilaporkan bahwa dalam segi ketahanan penyakit khas sapi Bali diperkirakan terdapat perbedaan genetik yang cukup besar. Peningkatan mutu genetik serta pelestarian sapi Bali perlu mendapat perhatian terus-menerus.

Keberhasilan penerapan pemuliaan juga dapat diukur dengan munculnya trah ternak, sapi perah, sapi pedaging, domba, babi dan ayam ras serta kelinci. Trah tertentu tersebut mampu beradaptasi di bawah kondisi lingkungan tertentu baik iklim sub tropik dan tropik serta mampu berproduksi secara efisien. Trah Sapi perah yang terkenal antara lain Friesien, Jersey, Australian Milking Zebu dll; trah sapi pedaging antara lain Angus, Heford, Simental, Charolais, Brahman; seratus lebih trah domba, berpuluh trah babi, dan kelinci. Trah unggul dan baru dari negeri asalnya kemudian disebar luaskan ke negara-negera yang berusaha membangun peternakan dengan penggunakan materi genetik import.Importasi dapat berupa ternak atau berupa mani beku, atau embrio beku.Dalam buku ajar yang ditulis Rice tahun 1926 dinyatakan bahwa Breeding is an art to be leamed only by practice, but knowledge of principles supplies the only firm foundation for its practice. Superior animals will be more numerous when breeders know why as well as how” ( Warwick dan Legates, 1979).

Berdasar uraian tersebut maka peran pemuliaan ternak dalam pembangunan peternakan merupakan peran yang mendasar, karena menyangkut sumber genetik dan pewarisan, perbaikannya, penyebarannya, pengukuran hasilnya, dan pengujian hasilnya. Apabila peran tersebut berjalan dengan sempurna maka pengujian ternak akan memberi mánfaat berupa produk ternak yang berkualitas seperti yang dipersyaratkan manusia sesuai dengan perkembangan kualitas hidupnya dan juga berkecukupan dalam jumlahnya. Secara sederhana pemuliaan ternak akan memberi manfaat dalam bentuk meningkatkan gizi manusia khususnya protein hewani.

Banyak bukti telah dilaporkan bahwa dengan pemuliaan ternak maka produk ternak dapat dilipat gandakan. Warwick dan Legate (1982) melaporkan
bahwa produksi susu dapat dilipat duakan, produksi daging ditingkatkan 50%, produksi wol lipat empat kali.


Pemanfaatan Sistem Komputer di Bidang Pemuliaan Ternak
Komputer adalah suatu alat elektronik, batasan lebih lengkap yang diberikan oleh Malone (1983) adalah -Computers are automatic electronic machme that solves complicated problems with great speed in just one second, computers can do a million logical operations-.Pada 1642 Blaise Pascal membuat mechanical computer yang pertama, pada 1882 diciptakan cash register, pada tahun 1940 mulai dikembangkan Electronic Computer, - yang dibuat pertama kali oleh Eckert dan Mauchley (Anonimus, 1974). Pada waktu itu kemudian dikembangkan cabang ilmu baru yang disebut Electronic Data Processing, EDP (Malone, 1983).

Komputer pada 1950 sudah menggunakan transistor dan IC (Integrated Circuit) sehingga komputer dapat bekerja lebih cepat. Komputer modern dapat menghitung dengan kecepatan ¼ kecepatan cahaya (299728 km/detik). Komputer dapat mengerjakan pekerjaan dalam satu jam sebanding yang dikerjakan oleh ribuan sarjana dalam seumur hidupnya.

Komputer itu bodoh tidak dapat berfikir, dapat mengerjakan sesuatu setelah diberi tahu, kapan mengerjakannya dan bagaimana cara mengerjakannya. Kumpulan perintah yang dapat memberi tahu tersebut disebut program atau software. Komputer dapat dinyalakan tetapi tanpa program tidak dapat bekerja.

Perangkat keras komputer terdiri dan mesin, kawat, chip silicon, dan bagian lain dalam komputer. Berbagai macam komputer yang dibuat kemampuan kerjanya berbeda. Perbedaan tersebut terletak pada kemampuan menyimpan data dan kecepatan bekerja. Pada masa sekarang telah dikenal komputer mikro, mini, midi, besar dan super besar. Pembagian menurut generasinya dikenal: 1) generasi pertama, 2) kedua, dan 3) ketiga. Makin tiriggi generasinya makin kecil ukurannya ( Widodo, 1984).
Segala macam data dapat digunakan sebagai masukan. Data masukan dapat dimasukkan dengan berbagai cara, menggunakan piranti masukan, berupa keyboard, mouse atau bentuk lain. Data masukan selanjutnya oleh komputer diubah menjadi bahasa mesin komputer. Setelah komputer diperintah untuk menyelesaikan sesuatu pekerjaan maka data masukan akan diproses sesuai dengan perintah. Hasil yang diperoleh kemudian akan disimpan atau dicetak tergantung perintah pemakai komputer. Hasil dapat ditampilkan pada layar monitor atau diketik pada mesin cetak.
Program komputer ditulis menggunakan bahasa program, contohnya FORTRAN, PASCAL dan BASIC. Penulisan progam harus menurut aturan khusus bahasa program yang digunakan. Pembuatan program umumnya bertujuan untuk memecahkan persoalan.
Pemecahan persoalan dengan bantuan komputer dilaksanakan dalam beberapa tahap, 1) memformulasikan persoalan secara rinci, 2) menyusun metode penyelesaian persoalan secara bertahap (algorithma), 3) menyusun peta alir, atau peta penyelesaian secara grafik dan terakhir 4) menterjemahkan dalam bahasa program (Djojodiharjo, 1983).

Pemanfaatan sistem komputer dapat menggunakan herbagai macam bahasa program yakni, bahasa mesin, bahasa assembler dan bahasa kompailer. Bahasa mesin adalah bahasa yang primitif, instruksi ditulis dengan menggunakan tanda numerik. Bahasa mesin dimengerti oleh komputer tanpa perlu diterjemahkan lebih dahulu. Bahasa assembler ditulis menggunakan abjad dan tanda numerik, komputer mengerti setelah diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa mesin. Bahasa kompailer ditulis dengan menggunakan bahasa Inggris, dikombinasikan dengan titik koma dan operator matematik. Contoh bahasa kompailer adalah FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, PASCAL dan BASIC. Komputer harus menterjemahkan lebih dahulu ke bahasa mesin untuk mengerti bahasa kompailer (Djojodihardjo, 1984).

Uraian singkat tersebut memberikan informasi bahwa sistem komputer dapat dimanfaatkan juga untuk memecahkan persoalan di bidang pemuliaan ternak.
Pemanfaatan sistem komputer di Amerika untuk bidang pertanian, secara nasional, mulai dikembangkan pada tahun 1970 oleh dua orang profesor dari Universitas Nebraska, sistem tersebut dikenal dengan nama AGNET (Agriculture Computer Network). AGNET merupakan alat manajemen untuk pertanian, diciptakan untuk keperluan petani dan peternak. AGNET memiliki jaringan sampai ke Pusat Penyuluhan Pertanian di country. Staf kantor tersebut dilatih mengoperasikan terminal yang dikontrol dari pusat AGNET di Negara Bagian. AGNET merupakan service-oriented computer center. Pada tahun 1983 dilaporkan memiliki 200 macam program untuk membantu membuat keputusan menejerial yang lebih baik untuk peningkatan manajemen finansial. Pada waktu itu diramalkan bahwa yang memanfaatkan sistem komputer akan dapat mempertahankan keuntungannya sampai tahun 1990.

Pemanfaatan sistem komputer melalui AGNET terutama untuk 1) Business Accountirig, 2) Herd Performance Reportirig, 3) Financial Management. Paket Program kelompok Livestock Production Models yang disediakan AGNET antara lain, BEEF (simulasi analisis ekonomi), COWCULL ( culling sapi perah), WEAN (uji kemampuan produksi berat sapih), CROSSBREED (evaluasi hasil persilangan), COWGAME ( simulasi genetik) (Hughes, 1983).
Penggunaan komputer dalam genetika dan pemuliaan ternak dapat dikelompokkan dalam empat kategori yaitu yang pertama untuk penyusunan rancangan penelitian sehingga diperoleh alternatif pencapaian tujuan, kedua untuk analisis data, ketiga untuk pemecahan masalah dalam formulasi matematik dan akhirnya yang keempat untuk simulasi model biologik (Secheinberg, 1968).
Selain itu adalah penggunaan dalam kaitannya dengan pengkajian seleksi yakni untuk tujuan penyelesaian masalah yang kompleks dan realistik mengenai pewarisan kuantitatif (Robertson, 1980). Sebagai contohnya adalah bahwa perhitungan indeks dapat dibantu dengan penggunaan program komputer yang disebut SELIND (Cuningham, 1970).

European Association for Animal Production (EEAP) telah melaporkan pemanfaatan sistem komputer dalam program pencatatan produksi di dua puluh
negara Eropa. Di dua belas negara diantaranya (Bulgaria, Cekoslowakia, Irlandia, Perancis, Finlandia, Inggris, Hunggaria, Islandia, Norwegia, Swedia, Spanyol dan Switserlandia) komputerisasi program pencatatan produksi dimanfaatkan untuk seleksi.
Program pencatatan produksi pada dasarnya adalah kegiatan rutin mencatat produksi. Pencatatan ini dilakukan menurut aturan tertentu. Aturan tersebut mengatur macam produksi yang harus dicatat, cara mencatat, waktu mencatat, blangko pencatatan dan pemanfaatan catatan produksi tersebut. Program pencatatan produksi merupakan kegiatan penting dalam penyediaan informasi untuk pengambilan keputusan yang berhubungan dengan efisiensi dan keuntungan usaha. Selain itu informasi tersebut juga sangat diperlukan untuk melaksanakan seleksi.

Simulasi pada akhir-akhir ini makin meningkat kegunaannya dalam pengembangan model di bidang pemuliaan ternak. Peningkatan ini mungkin disebabkan karena penyediaan sistem komputer makin mudah dan murah sedangkan kebutuhan pemecahan masalah dengan model semakin dibutuhkan, sehingga hasil simulasi makin banyak dilaporkan. Beberapa contoh hasil simulasi, untuk seleksi unggas dilaporkan Astuti (1978)-, untuk domba oleh Blackburn dan Cartwrigt (1987), untuk mengevaluasi hasil perkawinan silang pada ternak babi oleh NcLaren dkk., (1987), untuk seleksi domba di Indonesia khususnya di Jawa Tengah oleh Adjisoedarmo (1989), untuk menaksir variansi genetik oleh Werf dan Hoer (1990).
Berdasar perkembangan sistem komputer dan pemanfaatannya di bidang pemuliaan ternak, dapat disimpulkan bahwa pemanfaatan tersebut umumnya ditujukan untuk peningkatkan efisiensi reproduksi dan produksi. Peningkatan itu disebabkan karena pengambilan keputusan yang lebih cermat dan tepat.

Kecermatan dan ketepatan pengambilan. keputusan disebabkan karena informasi yang benar telah direkam dalam komputer. Informasi yang direkam pada umumnya adalah produksi ternak misal produksi susu, kadar lemak susu, berat lahir, pertambahan berat badan, dan berat sapih. Oleh karena itu pemanfaatan sistem komputer yang paling awal umumnya dalam program pencatatan produksi.


PENGGUNAAN STASTIKA DALAM PEMULIAAN TERNAK

Tujuan penggunaan statistika dapat dibagi menjadi dua pokok.
1.Menyingkat data menjadi hanya beberapa tetapan sederhana bentuknya dan
2.Menilai pentingnya peranan tetapan-tetapan tersebut.
Satistics is the branch of scientific method which deals with the data obtamed by countirig or measuring the properties of populations of natural phenomena.
Data yang diperoleh dapat berasal dari segala bidang yang sedang dipelajari. Dengan sendirinya data yang (akan) dibutuhkan dan akan dibicarakan adalah yang berasal dari bidang pemuliaan ternak.

Populasi adalah kumpulan item atau individu. Populasi mempunyai anggota tertentu atau terbatas dan kecil, dapat terbatas dan besar, atau dapat dengan jumlah tak terbatas. Oleh karena itu populasi dapat digunakan sebagai sumber pemilihan dan pengambilan contoh. Pengambilan contoh dilakukan karena tak dapat mengukur semua individu anggota populasi tersebut. Populasi didefinisikan oleh tetapan-tetapan yang berparameter. Dari contoh dapat ditentukan tetapan-tetapa-n yang disebut statistik.
Contoh yang diambil dari populasi yang sama akan menghasilkan statistik yang belum tentu sama nilainya dengan statistik yang dihasilkan dari contoh sebelumnya. Oleh karena nilai statistik suatu contoh dipengaruhi oleh kesalahan acak yang timbul karena proses pengambilan contoh.

Dalam garis besarnya analisis statistik perlu dilakukan karena asalan sebagai berikut.
1.Adanya variasi atau perbedaan diantara populasi dan contoh yang dipelajari.
2.Data yang dibutuhkan atau yang ada tidak sempurna
3.Tak mungkin dan tak efisien untuk mengumpulkan data dalam jumlah besar dengan harapan dapat menarik kesimpulan bebas dari kesalahan.
4.Statistik merupakan cara yang rasional dan cocok untuk membuat kesimpulan-kesimpulan secara induktif.
Dalam menggunakan statistika dalam pemuliaan ternak perlu sekali lagi diingat hal-hal sebagai berikut.
a.Cara mendefinisikan atau menerangkan suatu populasi, mengurangi jumlah data yang dibutuhkan sedemikian rupa sehingga mudah dimengerti dan dipergunakan.
b.Cara membandingkan dua kelompok data dengan menggunakan Uji Nyata (Test of Significance).
c.Bagaimana mendefinisikan atau menerangkan suatu populasi yang tersifat karena adanya lebih dari satu peragam ( misal berat wol dan kualitas wol pada domba).
d.Bagaimana membandingkan lebih dari dua kelompok.

Pengertian yang Diperlukan

1. Populasi
Dipakai untuk kumpulan obyek, individu atau sejumlah ketegori. Contoh populasi dalam pemuliaan ternak.
(1) Berat lahir anak domba di Baturraden.
(2) Nilai pemuliaan untuk karakteristik berat sapihan domba.
(3) Tiriggi dan berat domba umur tertentu.
(4) Data produksi harian per laktasi sekelompok sapi perah.
Perlu diperhatikan pentingnya spesifikasi pengukuran. Berat lahir domba lokal (1 kg) misalnya akan berbeda kalau yang dimaksudkan lokal di Baturaden dan lokal di lain daerah, daerah Priangan misalnya, maka berasal dari dua populasi yang berbeda.

2. Peubah (variabel)
Dipakai untuk menerangkan kuantitas, karakteristik atau pengukuran yang berbeda beda.
a. Mengenai punya tidaknya tanduk pada ternak dalam populasi ternak tertentu, disebut variabel yang diskrit (descrete). Contoh lain adalah jawaban ya dan tidak atas pertanyaan yang diajukan, jumlah cempe per induk yang mati atau hidup (merupakan hasil penghitungan ).
b. Berat wol adalah karakteristik yang dapat diukur sampai kecermatan tertentu dapat diukur misalnya 0,5 kg , 1 kg, 1,1 kg atau sampai satu angka dibelakang koma, dan dalam kg, Variabel yang bersifat demikian disebut variabel kontiriyu (Contiriues); variabel yang merupakan hasil pengukuran.

3. Contoh Acak (Random Sample)
Yang dimaksud dengan contoh acak adalah contoh yang diambil dari populasi dengan cara sedemikian rupa sehingga setiap anggota dari populasi tersebut mempunyai peluang yang sama untuk dapat menjadi contoh. Dengan cara demikian contoh dapat dipakai untuk manaksir parameter populasi dengan kesalahan yang dapat dipertanggung jawabkan.

4. Sebaran Frekuensi
Hasil pengukuran terhadap beberapa karakteristik suatu kelompok individu akan berbeda beda. Langkah pertama yang harus dikerjakan adalah menyusunnya ke dalam beberapa golongan nilai. Dari hasil penyusunan tersebut akan diperoleh sebaran frekuensi.

PERBAIKAN MUTU GENETIK DAN VARIANSI GENETIK

Variasi kualitatif dan kuantitatif

Tujuan peningkatan mutu genetik adalah meningkatkan efisiensi reproduksi dan produksi dengan meningkatkan kemampuan reproduksi dan produksi setiap ternak di dalam populasi. Menaikkan nilai tengah populasi biasanya dinyatakan sebagai produksi per individu. Misal 15 l susu per ekor, 19 kg wol per ekor, 200 butir telur per ekor dst.

Menaikkan produk per individu tidak selalu sama dengan menaikkan keuntungan ekonomis. Keadaan demikian disebabkan karena menaikkan produksi biasanya diikuti dengan kenaikan ongkos produksi. Diperoleh banyak bukti bahwa individu yang lebih produktif biasanya lebih efisien dalam menggunakan pakan. Apabila fenomena tersebut benar maka tidak menyebabkan kesalahan yang besar apabila karakteristik dinyatakan dalam unit produksi per individu. Perlu selalu diperhitungkan dan ditirijau kembali efisiensi produksi apabila produksi individu naik. Individu yang lebih produktif akan membutuhkan pakan yang lebih banyak, tetapi biasanya lebih rentan terhadap penyakit.

Asumsi yang digunakan dalam membahas karakteristik ialah bahwa suatu karakteristik ditentukan paling tidak oleh kombinasi gen atau yang sering disebut dengan potensi genetik individu. Berdasar asumsi tersebut maka perbedaan antara individu (kemampuan produksinya) menghasilkan suatu produk, sebagian ditentukan oleh perbedaan kombinasi gen (potensi gen) yang dimiliki individu.

Pertanyaan yang perlu dijawab ialah - Bagaimana sesungguhnya perbedaan tersebut terjadi ? Apakah kita dapat memanfaatkan perbedaan tersebut?. Jawaban pertanyaan tersebut akan ditemui dalam mengikuti kuliah dan membaca materi kuliah, mengikuti praktikum, diskusi dan membaca sumber pustaka yang lain (diperpustakaan).

Beberapa perbedaan (genetik) tampak jelas pada individu dan dapat diklasifikasikan dalam klas diskrit. Misal, warna kulit pada sapi, laju pertumbuhan bulu pada ayam. Karakteristik yang masuk dalam klas diskrit disebut karakteristik discontiriues atau kualitatif. Tidak semua karakteristik kualitatif jelas dapat dilihat, misal gol darah, memerlukan bantuan teknik tertentu untuk dapat membedakan golongan darah. Karakteristik kualitatif kalau digunakan untuk mengelompokkan individu akan diperoleh klas diskrit. Misalnya, pada sapi Shorthorn, RR merah, Rr roan (merah campur putih) dan rr putih (tidak ada pigment). Untuk karakteristik tertentu, meskipun fenotipenya diketahui, pengetahuan tersebut tidak dapat digunakan untuk spesifikasi individu secara sempurna.

Berbeda dengan karakteristik kualitatif, karakteristik yang ekonomis (kuantitatif) umumnya karakteristik yang tidak dapat dipakai untuk mengelompokkan individu menjadi klas diskrit, tetapi dapat dalam klas contiriues. Misal produksi susu pada laktasi pertama berkisar dari 800 l sampai 4000 liter. Berarti pada laktasi pertama tersebut ada kisaran variasi (perbedaan/selisih) yang kontiriyu, seperti yang telihat dalam Gambar

Perbedaan karakteristik kualitatif dan kuantitatif dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut.

Karakteristik kualitatif Karakteristik kuantitatif
Diskripsi dan analisinya
secara individual Diskripsi dan analisinya ditirijau dari populasi

Diskripsi variasi kuantitatif pada contoh di atas bagian terbesar individu mempunyai produksi di sekitar nilai tengah, sebagian kecil anggota populasi mempunyai produksi menjauhi nilai tengah.

Kurva frekuensi Gambar 4.2 dapat dicirikan dengan besaran, rata-rata aritmetik atau mean, dan standar deviasi atau simpang baku. Kurang lebih 2/3 (dua pertiga) anggota populasi terletak di daerah -2 s/d +2. Besaran pengukur yang lain adalah variansi (variansi = kuadrat simpang baku). Variansi disimbolkan dengan V dan simpang baku disimbolkan dengan . Berdasar con toh pada Gambar 1 dan 2 dapat dimengerti bahwa 2/3 anggota populasi produksinya berkisar dari 1600 s/d 3200 liter (karena  = 400 liter).
Telah banyak macam analisis dijalankan untuk mengetahui berpasang gen mempengaruhi karakteristik kuantitatif tertentu. Estimasi yang diperoleh tidak cermat. Hasil yang diperoleh melaporkan , ada petunjuk bahwa jumlah pasangan gen tersebut berkisar 10 (sepuluh) sampai dengan 100 (seratus) pasang. Lepas dari hasil tersebut yang bagi kita adalah, bagaimna kita dapat menaksir dan selanjutnya dapat memilih individu dengan kombinasi gen atau potensi genetik yang tidak diketahui dengan pasti berdasarkan hasil pengukuran karakteristik kuantitatif. Proses fisiologik baik yang bersifat hormonal maupun enzymatik banyak terlihat dalam pemunculan karakteristik kuantitatif.

2. Ekspresi karakteristik kuantitatif tidak hanya tergantung pada kombinasi gen, tetapi juga pada faktor lingkungan.

Dua individiu monozygote indentical twin memiliki kombinasi gen yang sama. Apabila kedua individu tersebut dipelihara di bawah faktor lingkungan yang berbeda maka akan memunculkan karakteristik kuantitatif yang berbeda pula. Gambarannya sebagai berikut.

Yang Menginginkan file secara utuh agar kirim biodata secara lengkap ke situs email blog ini, karena banyak rumus dan kolom yang membutuhkan waktu tersendiri untuk ditransfer ke prog. HTML..

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All About of Angus

History
In the northeastern part of Scotland lie the four counties of Aberdeen, Banff, Kincardine, and Angus. These counties touch the North Sea and all extend inland and have some high or mountainous country. They have been favored through the ages with a temperate climate and good crops, although the topography of the country is rough. Pastures do well in the area because of well-distributed rainfall. Plenty of grass, plus a nearly ideal temperature for cattle production, has made the area very suitable for some of the greatest improvement that has been made in our purebred breeds of cattle.

The county of Angus was early noted for its production of potatoes, grain crops, and feed. This shire contains a fine expanse of highly cultivated land known as Strathmore, which is one of the very fine valleys in that part of Scotland and which has become famous in the history of the Aberdeen-Angus breed. The county of Aberdeen is the most productive agricultural region in Scotland and depends largely upon crops and livestock for income. The fishing industry, however, is stressed along the coastline. The tiny counties of Banff and Kincardine have long been known as livestock centers.

Northern Scotland, although in a more northern latitude than the United States, has a more uniform temperature throughout the year. The Gulf Steam tempers the climate in the winter, and the summers remain cooler than weather commonly experienced in the United States.

Origin
There are three distinct and well-defined breeds of polled cattle in the United Kingdom. These breeds are the Aberdeen-Angus, the Galloway, and the red polled Norfolk and Suffolk breed that is found in England. Polled cattle apparently existed in Scotland before recorded history because the likeness of such cattle is found in prehistoric carvings of Aberdeen and Angus. Historians state that there were hornless cattle in Siberia centuries earlier. A hornless race of cattle was depicted in Egypt by sculptors and painters of that ancient civilization. Some historians feel that the Aberdeen-Angus breed and the other Scottish breeds sprang from the aboriginal cattle of the country and that the breeds as we find them today are indigenous to the districts in which they are still found.

Early Scottish Cattle. Although little is known about the early origin of the cattle that later became known as the Aberdeen-Angus breed, it is thought that the improvement of the original stock found in the area began in the last half of the 18th century. The cattle found in northern Scotland were not of uniform color, and many of the cattle of the early days had varied color markings or broken color patterns. Many of the cattle were polled, but some few had horns. The characteristics we commonly call polled was often referred to in the old Scottish writings by the terms of "humble," "doddies," "humlies," or "homyl."

Foundation of the Breed
Two strains were used in the formation of what later became known s the Aberdeen-Angus breed of cattle. In the county of Angus, cattle had existed for some time that were known as Angus doddies. MacDonald and Sinclair quote the Rev. James Playfair as having written in 1797, "There are 1129 horned cattle of all ages and sexes in the parish. I have no other name to them; but many of them are dodded, wanting horns." This seems to be the first authentic reference to polled cattle in the county of Angus, apart from ancient sculptures. In the area of Aberdeenshire, other polled cattle were found and were called Buchan "humlies," Buchan being the principal agricultural district in Aberdeenshire. These cattle were apparently early valued as work oxen, as were most of the other strains of cattle that later acquired various breed names. MacDonald and Sinclair believed that polled cattle were found in Aberdeen in the 16th century, and stated: 2

Improvement in Scottish Agriculture. Apparently little attention was given to the breeding of cattle before the middle of the 18th century, but in the last half of that century, great progress was made in Scottish agriculture. It is not strange that, as farming practices were improved, men likewise sought to improve the livestock on their farms. It was only natural that breeders, in improving their cattle, would but cattle of similar kinds from adjacent areas, and as a result, the cattle of the Angus doddie strain and the Buchan humlie strain were crossed. Crossing and recrossing these strains of cattle eventually led to a distinct breed that was not far different from either type, since the two strains were originally of rather similar type and color pattern.

The Early Herds. By the beginning of the 19th century, the polled cattle of the Buchan district had attained considerable favor as market cattle for the production of carcass beef. Among the polled herds of Aberdeenshire that were famous for such production in the early 1800s were those of Messrs. Williamson of St. John’s Wells and Robert Walker of Wester Fintray. The Williamson herd later supplied the herd of Tillyfour and, through it, the Ballindalloch herd with some of their humlies. In Angus, the herds of William Fullerton, Lord Panmure, Lord Southesk, and Alexander Bowie contributed many of the Angus doddies that later became prominent in the breed. Robert Walker of Portlethen seems to have been the principal cattle breeder in Kincardineshire.

The Contribution of Hugh Watson.
If any one person can be singled out as the founder of a breed of livestock, Hugh Watson of Keillor, who lived in the vale of Strathmore in Angus, is worthy of that distinction. If not the first real improver of Aberdeen-Angus cattle, he was certainly the most systematic and successful. Both his father and grandfather had been buyers and breeders of the Angus doddies. The family is known to have owned cattle as early as 1735. Hugh Watson was born in 1789 and, in 1808, at the time he was 19 years of age, he became a tenant at Keillor.

When Hugh Watson started his farming activities at Keillor, he received from his father’s herd six of the best and blackest cows, as well as a bull. That same summer, he visited some of the leading Scottish cattle markets and purchased the 10 best heifers and the best bull that he could find that showed characteristics of the Angus cattle that he was striving to breed. The females were of various colors, but the bull was black; Watson decided that the color of his herd should be black and he started selecting in that direction.

Mr. Watson’s favorite bull was Old Jock 126 (1), 3 who was awarded the number "1" in the Herd Book at the time it was founded. The bull was bred by Watson in 1842 and was sired by Grey-Breasted Jock 113 (2). The bull apparently was used very heavily in the herd from 1843 until 1852 and was awarded the sweepstakes for bulls at the Highland Society Show at Perth in 1852, when he was 11 years old.

A very famous cow also made considerable history in the herd at Keillor. This cow was Old Granny 125 (1), who was calved in 1824 and was killed by lightning when past 35 years of age. She is reported to have produced a total of 29 calves, 11 of which were registered in the Herd Book. A very large percentage of our living Aberdeen-Angus cattle trace to either Old Granny or Old Jock, or both of these very famous foundation animals, and most would trace many times if their pedigrees were extended to the foundation of the breed.

Hugh Watson practiced the fitting and showing of his cattle more than was common by other breeders of his day. He made his first exhibition at the Highland Agricultural Society Show at Perth in 1829. During his long show career, he is said to have won over 500 prizes with his cattle and did a great deal to increase the popularity of the black polled cattle over the British Isles.

Other Early Contributors. Lord Panmure established a herd of polled cattle in 1835, and not only operated a private herd but also encouraged his tenants to breed good doddies. William Fullerton, who was born in 1810, began to breed cattle in 1833. His most important early purchase was that of another Aberdeen cow named Black Meg. Black Meg 43 (766) is sometimes referred to as the founder of the breed, since more cattle trace to her than to any other female used in the origin of the breed. 4 She is the only cow to surpass Old Granny in this respect. Robert Walker of Porlethen founded his herd in 1818 and continued to breed cattle successfully until his death in 1874.

Shorthorn Breed Threatens the Aberdeen-Angus. In 1810, the Colling brothers of England sold the famous Shorthorn bull Comet at $5,000. The publicity resulting from this sale naturally spread throughout Scotland, and many breeders looked with favor upon the use of Shorthorn blood in improving the native cattle. Subsequently good herds of Shorthorn cattle were established in Scotland, and the cattle were used in the improvement of native stock. The use of the Shorthorn cattle on the black native cows was a very common practice of the period for the raising of commercial stock. This practice of crossbreeding threatened the Aberdeen-Angus breed with extinction.
It is often suggested that some Shorthorn blood found its way into the Aberdeen-Angus breed prior to the time the Herd Book was closed. Alexander Keith, secretary of the Aberdeen-Angus Cattle Society from 1944 to 1955, takes exception to this opinion by writing:

Improvement and Expansion of the Aberdeen-Angus
The Great Preserver. William McCombie of Tillyfour is regarded as the preserver and great improver of the Aberdeen-Angus breed. Fullerton and others had started the blending of the two types of cattle, which later became known as the Aberdeen-Angus, but this success was enlarged at Tillyfour. The master of Tillyfour was born in 1805 and died in the spring of 1880. Like his father before him, he had been a successful dealer in cattle before he began his operations in 1829 as a tenant farmer. Mr. McCombie is distinguished in the history of the Aberdeen-Angus breed because of his great foresight in planning matings, his careful management, his unparalleled success in the show ring, and in publicizing his famous cattle. Probably his crowning success in the show ring was at the great International Exposition held at Paris in 1878. There he won the first prize of $500 as an exhibitor of cattle from a foreign country and also the grand prize of $500 for the best group of beef-producing animals bred by any exhibitor.

Not only did Mr. McCombie show in breeding classes but he also exhibited in steer classes at the market shows. Probably the most famous steer that her produced was the famous show animal Black prince, who won at the Birmingham and Smithfield Shows in 1867 when he was four years of age. From the latter show, he was taken to Windsor Castle for the personal inspection of Queen Victoria, and later her Majesty accepted some Christmas beef from the carcass of the steer.
The English Crown has long been interested in livestock improvement, and Queen Victoria paid a personal visit to Tillyfour a year or two after the visit of the famous Black prince to the castle. Such a tribute to an outstanding breeder naturally attracted great attention to the already famous herd. McCombie had the further distinction of being the first tenant farmer in Scotland to be elected to the House of Commons.

According to the historian Sanders:
Aberdeen-Angus history may fairly be divided into two periods; the first, before William McCombie’s time; the second, since. That is as good as any other way of saying that the Master of Tillyfour-recognized cattle king of his day and generation in Aberdeen-Angusshire and of all Scotland-stands a very colossus upon any canvas which accurately portrays the original arrival of black cattle as a factor of world importance in the field of prime beef production.

William McCombie always had utility in mind in producing his cattle, and his ideal beast seems to have been one with size, symmetry, and balance, yet with strength of constitution and disposition to accumulate flesh. Important Developments at Tillyfour. Although his original stock was gathered from many sources and his purchases were many, Mr. McCombie’s outstanding acquisition was probably the good yearling heifer Queen Mother 41 (348) at the Ardestie Sale.

Mr. McCombie purchased the bull Hanton 80 (228), calved in 1853, from the breeder Alexander Bowie. This bull was a grandson of Old Jock 126 (1) and was said to have weighed a ton at maturity. Despite the fact that he had scurs, he was a great show bull and was exhibited widely by Me. McCombie. The bull’s success, however, was more pronounced in the breeding pen, and he probably made his greatest contribution to the breed through his double grandson, Black Prince of Tillyfour 77 (366), calved in 1860. Few, if any, cattle of the breed are living today that do not trace at least a dozen times to Black Prince of Tillyfour. It is difficult to say how much contribution Mr. McCombie made to the Aberdeen-Angus breed through his successes in the show ring, but he outstripped all of his competition in England, Scotland, and France. Consequently, the name of Aberdeen-Angus became known on an international basis. It was on the farm of William McCombie that the Aberdeen-Angus breed really took shape, because prior to his time, people spoke of the cattle as Aberdeen and Angus. In his herd was found the justification for leaving out the "and" and replacing it with the hyphen that has become familiar. At Tillyfour, the master breeder molded the two original strains into one improved breed superior to either of its components. There is no question but that the "preserver" of the Angus breed left the breed far better than he found it.

The Ballindalloch Herd.
Another very famous Aberdeen-Angus herd in Scotland was that of Ballindalloch, but the origin of this herd is lost in the mists of antiquity. It was probably first founded by Sir John MacPherson Grant, but it was not until the time the farm came into the hands of Sir George, a son, that systematic breeding was started. Sir George drew heavily on Tillyfour cattle in establishing his herd. It was very fortunate for the breed that the Ballindalloch herd was kept in the family for over three generations. The main herd was dispersed on August 8, 1934, but it had already left a great imprint on the Aberdeen-Angus world. Not only was the Ballindalloch herd the outstanding herd in Scotland but it mush also be given credit for having furnished a great deal of very valuable foundation stock to the herds of the United States and other foreign countries.

The First Angus In America. When George Grant transported four Angus bulls from Scotland to the middle of the Kansas prairie in 1873, they were part of the Scotsman's dream to found a colony of wealthy, stock-raising Britishers. Grant died five years later, and many of the settlers at his Victoria, Kansas colony later returned to their homeland. However, these four Angus bulls, probably from the herd of George Brown of Westertown, Fochabers, Scotland, made a lasting impression on the U.S. cattle industry. When two of the George Grant bulls were exhibited in the fall of 1873 at the Kansas City (Missouri) Livestock Exposition, some considered them "freaks" because of their polled (naturally hornless) heads and solid black color (Shorthorns were then the dominant breed.) Grant, a forward thinker, crossed the bulls with native Texas longhorn cows, producing a large number of hornless black calves that survived well on the winter range. The Angus crosses wintered better and weighed more the next spring, the first demonstration of the breed's value in their new homeland.

Early Importers and Breeders. The first great herds of Angus beef cattle in America were built up by purchasing stock directly from Scotland. Twelve hundred cattle alone were imported, mostly to the Midwest, in a period of explosive growth between 1878 and 1883 . Over the next quarter of a century these early owners, in turn, helped start other herds by breeding, showing, and selling their registered stock

For the boldness of furthermore please visit the site of following:
http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
http://www.lonelyplanet.com
http://www.angus.org

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All About of Limousin

History
The Limousin breed can trace its history back at least 16,000 years, when images of its ancestors were painted on the walls of caves near the village of Montignac in central France.In the adjacent Limousin region, cattle adapted naturally to its harsh landscape and highly variable climate. A few centuries ago, when the cattle were used increasingly for draught, selection pressures replaced natural evolution resulting in the breed we now call Limousins becoming large-framed and

muscular animals.The first Limousin herd book was established in France in 1886, and significant exports of Limousins out of France did not occur until the 1960s. The first Limousins arrived in Australia in 1975 and they can now be found in 70 countries on all continents.
In their original form, which is still maintained as the breed standard in France, Limousins are horned and have a rich gold coat with lighter colouring around the muzzle, eyes, legs, underside and hind quarters. Over the past two decades, polled and black Limousins have been bred.

The history version other
The history of Limousin cattle may very well be as old as the European continent itself. Cattle found in cave drawings estimated to be 20,000 years old in the Lascaux Cave near Montignac, France, have a striking resemblance to today's Limousin. These golden-red cattle are native to the south central part of France in the regions of Limousin and Marche. The terrain of the homeland has been described as rugged and rolling with rocky soil and a harsh climate. Consequently, the growing of field crops was very difficult at best and emphasis was placed on animal agriculture. Limousin cattle, as a result of their environment, evolved into a breed of unusual sturdiness, health and adaptability. This lack of natural resources also enabled the region to remain relatively isolated and the farmers free to develop their cattle with little outside genetic interference.During these early times of animal power, Limousin gained a well-earned reputation as work animals in addition to their beef qualities. Rene Lafarge reported in 1698, "Limousin oxen were universally renown and esteemed both as beasts of burden and beef cattle." At the end of their work life, these animals were then fattened for slaughter.

Traditionally, French cattle were kept in a confinement or semi-confinement situation. However, Limousin cattle spent the majority of their time outdoors in the harsh climate of the region. This was a source of great pride to the breeders. The cows calved year round, outdoors, to bring in a regular source of income and the heifers were bred to calve at three years of age. In the winter, the entire herd was outside and whatever the season, the cattle were handled on a daily basis.

French Developments
Once in the 1700s and again in the mid-1800s, an attempt was made by a small number of French Limousin breeders to crossbreed their cattle in hopes of gaining both size and scale. In 1840, several breeders crossbred their Limousin with oxen of Agenaise variety.

The resulting animals were taller, having more volume of muscling in their hindquarter. Unfortunately, these crossbred cattle proved not to be economical as they needed a larger amount of feed than could be provided in the majority of the region. Only near Limoges, where manure and fertilizers were plentiful and growing field crops was widespread, did these cattle prosper.Limousin breeders admitted their mistake and then concentrated upon improving the breed through natural selection. A leader in the natural selection movement was Charles de Leobary and his herdsman, Royer. Through a very tough, selective process, these two developed an outstanding herd of "purebred" Limousin. From 1854 to 1896 the de Leobary herd won a total of 265 ribbons at the prestigious Bordeaux Competition, one of France's finest cattle shows.Limousin cattle made a deep impression in French cattle shows during the 1850s. The first show wins were at the Bordeaux Fair where Limousin tooksecond and third places. The cattle belonged to the already mentioned de Leobary herd. Furthermore, in 1857, '58 and '59, Limousin animals topped other breeds in some of the first carcass competitions at the farm produce competition held at Poissy, near Paris. The reputation of Limousin as meat animals was firmly established. Today, Limousin cattle are still referred to as the "butcher's animal" in France.
The widespread use of natural selection made it important to record the bloodlines of the outstanding Limousin bulls and females. So, in November of 1886, the first Limousin Herd Book was established. Louis Michel presided over the herd book, the objective of which was to ensure the uniformity of the breed. Michel and his 11 fellow herd book commissioners were extremely rigid in the selections. Between 1887 and 1890, the commission met six times and out of 1,800 animals presented for registration from 150 different farms, only a total of 674 (117 males and 497 females) were accepted for registration.

The formation of the herd book had other important consequences. Once established, the French government then established shows solely for Limousin cattle. As with their counterparts today, these shows provided tremendous exposure for the breed as the many valuable traits of these beef cattle were presented for all to see.
By July of 1914, the total number of animals registered in the herd book was 5,416. It is interesting to note the herd book has been reorganized twice since it was founded, once in 1923 and again in 1937. Both times these reorganizations were used to redefine the characteristics of the breed, making the breeders more selective, this improving the quality of the animals.

Through the late 1800s and early 1900s, Limousin breeders paid close attention to morphological characteristics as the breed developed. The medium size of these cattle as compared to other European breeds was, and is still, an outstanding breed trait. They also selected for the dark golden-red hide with wheat colored underpinnings. French records also show a great deal of emphasis was stressed upon deep chest, a strong top-line, well-placed tailhead and strongly-muscled hindquarter. The end result was an efficient, hardy, adaptable animal that was extremely well-suited for its only intended purpose - to produce meat.

Across the Atlantic
As the breed developed in France, cattlemen in North America were looking to Europe to improve their native beef cattle here in the United States. In the late 1800s, English breeds such as the Hereford, Shorthorn and Angus were imported and crossed on native cattle, most of them of Spanish background. In the early 1900s Charolais were imported into Cuba and Mexico and were first introduced into the United States in the early 1930s.

The acceptance of Charolais, combined with the use of crossbreeding as a tool to increase beef production, lead to the investigation of many other Europeanbreeds, including Limousin, by North American cattlemen. One of the first exposures in this country concerning Limousin cattle was in the early 1960s in an issue of the Western Livestock Journal when a Canadian wrote of his impressions after returning from a trip to France. As more cattlemen traveled toEurope, they came back talking about an impressive "new" beef breed they had seen...Limousin.

Cattle from France were not eligible for importation into the United States, as France was a hoof-and-mouth disease affected area. However, the Canadian government did agree to accept French cattle after they had successfully completed a strict three-step quarantine program. Before the cattle left France they were held in a three-month quarantine, then once arriving in Canada they were kept on Grosse Isle of the cost of Nova Scotia or St. Pierre Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence for another three-month period. Finally, the cattle were required to successfully pass a 30-day "on the farm" quarantine. Once they passed the quarantine, semen could be shipped throughout North America.

The first Limousin imported to Canada was Prince Pompadour, a son of Baron bred at the highly-respected Pompadour Estate of France. Through the efforts of Adrien de Moustier of France (later to found Bov Import, Inc.) and others, the bull arrived in November of 1968. An impressive bull, Prince Pompadour had been selected by noted French breeder Emil Chastanet as a herd bull for his operation. After his arrival, Prince Pompadour was brought to the United States to be part of Limousin exhibitions at various cattle shows and did much to draw attention to the breed.

The first Limousin bulls imported permanently into the United States did not arrive until the fall of 1971. Until this time, the Canadian government had not permitted any Limousin bulls to leave the country except for short periods for exhibition purposes, and then only if the owners posted a large bond that was refunded when the animal returned to Canada. The first U.S. import, Kansas Colonel, was born and raised in Canada and was imported by Bob Haag of Topeka, Kansas, for a group of Kansas Limousin breeders.

The first Limousin semen was available from Prince Pompadour in July of 1969. After being evaluation by J.J. "Bud" Prosser at the International Beef Breeders facility near Denver, semen was picked up by Colonel E.J. Geeson of Agate, Colorado. A retired Air Force officer, Geeson used the semen on his Angus cows on his ranch east of Denver.After the importation of Prince Pompadour to Canada, another group of Limousin bulls followed in 1969. This shipment contained Decor, Diplomate, Dandy, Prairie Danseur and Prairie Pride. These bulls were the base upon which the breed began its long climb up, finding good acceptance on the part of cattlemen.

Limousin Performance
Limousins are renowned for their longevity, hardiness, low maintenance costs, and are prolific and efficient producers of healthy, lean, tender meat.
Some of the most comprehensive research comparing cattle types was published recently, which puts figures on what Limousin breeders have known for decades. In one long-term trial involving nine cattle breeds, Limousins were twice as efficient at converting feed into retail meat from weaning to slaughter as Angus and Hereford.
Other trials indicate that Limousin meat tenderness, flavour and juiciness are similar to Angus and Hereford meat.

Limousin Muscling Gene
The Myostatin gene, or more accurately the protein it produces, actively suppresses muscle growth. Two Myostatin genes are found in all animal species, and their regulatory effect on muscle development is generally diminished when a variant (mutation) occurs; this leads to increased muscling and reduced fat deposition.
Variants of the gene have been identified in several animal species, with at least ten Myostatin variants identified in cattle. The most extreme variant is associated with Belgian Blue cattle.

In 1998, a less extreme variant of the gene, known scientifically as F94L, was identified as the most likely cause of Limousin's unique muscling and tenderness qualities. Limousin carcases are consistently over 60% of liveweight, with retail meat yield on the carcase frequently exceeding 70%, and reaching close to 80% in some circumstances. The extremely high meat yield is attributed to increased muscling, finer bone structure, and low fat compared with British breeds.
Recently, researchers at the University of Adelaide in collaboration with other Australian and New Zealand researchers quantified the effect of the F94L gene. In a cross and back-cross breeding program, the scientists established that cattle with two copies of the F94L gene (which almost all Limousins have) had higher weight of prime cuts by 14 - 19%, higher overall meat yield by 6 - 8%, and meat tenderness improved by 6 - 11%, when compared with cattle without the gene.

Growing Popularity
Cross-breeding with British breed cattle exploits Limousin's muscling, tenderness, efficiency and health benefits, maximises hybrid vigour, and also enables producers to target markets that require higher levels of fat. Producers and processors benefit from the higher yield and lower trim wastage associated with Limousin and Limousin-cross meat, and consumers benefit from its healthier qualities.
Limousins have been growing rapidly in popularity as a terminal sire in many countries. In the UK, home of British breeds, 34% of all terminal sires are Limousins, a figure that eclipses the combined totals of the next two most popular sires, Charolais and Angus. Limousins have held the top UK sire position for the past 12 years.

In Australia, Limousin and Limousin-cross steers have been beating most of the competition in recent years, chalking up impressive all-breed wins and places in major on the hoof and carcase competitions around the country.
For the boldness of furthermore please visit the site of following:
http://www.salimousin.com.au
http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
http://en.wikipedia.org

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